The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924
By 1924, there were multiple paths to naturalization, from allotment to citizenship for World War I veterans. The Dakota shown above exchanged their bows (Indians were allowed to keep the arrows) for a plow. However, only 2/3 of Indians had taken these paths. Many went to great lengths, like Mary Burroughs (Winnebago), who moved from Nebraska to Minnesota and corresponded with the Office of Indian Affairs, in order to become citizens. However, for various reasons, 125,000 Indians were not citizens. With his signature, President Coolidge unilaterally declared all "competent" Indians to be US citizens. While debate in the House concerned the precise manner of declaring competency, no one opposed the premise of citizenship.
While most contemporary accounts supported the Indian Citizenship Act, some indicated opposition to citizenship. Current scholarship emphasizes unilateral declaration and resulting loss of sovereignty. |