Primary Sources
"Absorbing the Indian." New York Times 7 Mar. 1926, E8 sec.: n. pag. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article was written nearly 2 years after the Indian Citizenship Act. It summarizes some demographic information about Indians and some history of Indians in the US, focusing on efforts to civilize Indians. It highlights the dichotomy believed by many people in the US (Indians could either be uncivilized and dependent on the US government, or that Indians could be moral and useful members of society).
Application of Indians to Become Citizens of the United States. Oct. 1889. Application to US District Court. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
This appears to be a draft (in complete dates and no signatures of character witnesses, Mrs. Burroughs or members of her family) of an application for US citizenship directed to the judge of the US District Court. The application highlights her relinquishment of ties to her tribe, her "comfortable and civilized" way of life for the past 5 years, and her intelligence, all of which were requirements for citizenship for Indians. This application, in connection with a letter in dated April 1883 and another from August 1883, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
Bright, Alfred H. Indians as Citizens of the U.S. N.d. TS P2079. Gale Family Library, n.p.
Bright's personal papers include essays from the perspective of this progressive Minnesotan about suffrage. He supported women's suffrage and included documents about Indian suffrage, suggesting a connection between the two movements. He also included a typed copy of Article 7 of the Minnesota constitution. These papers provided me with a sense of the broader perspective of the progressive movement.
"Citizenship Carries Pauperism to Indians." New York Times 22 July 1906: 2. ProQuest. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
This article about Minnesota Indians spreads the stereotype of drunken Indians selling their allotments, saying they are citizens. This could build the argument against citizenship.
"Citizenship of Indians: Provisions of the Bill Reported by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs." New York Times 15 Nov. 1877: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
Printed after the passage of the Dawes Act, this article describes amendments that clarified what property a new citizen could keep, also describes the process for an Indian to become a citizen. This overview was written for the general public, who might not know much about the Dawes Act and gave me an overview of its provisions.
Eastman, Charles Alexander. The Indian To-day: The past and Future of the First American. New York: AMS, 1975. Print.
Eastman, who had background in Minnesota and had been educated in white schools, as well as experiencing the effects expulsion of the Dakota from Minnesota originally published this book in 1915. This book gave me insight into the perspective of someone claiming Indian identity, who highlighted the differences the civilization process made in his family, seemingly to ingratiate himself to whites.
Free Border Crossing Flyer. Seneca Nation of Indians Master Calendar. Indian Defense League of America, 2012. Web. 28 Sept. 2013. <http://sni.org/media/34592/85th_annual_free_boarder_crossing.pdf>.
This flyer for the 85th annual Free Border Crossing commemorates the 1928 amendment of the Johnson-Reed Act which removed the restrictions on Native peoples entering the US, thus restoring the rights grated by the Jay Treaty of 1794. The annual crossing was begun by Tuscarora Chief Clinton Rickard.
Hamill, Kristen, Mary Snow, Elise Labott, and Meghan Rafferty. "Iroquois Lacrosse Team Still Caught in Bureaucratic Net." CNN. Cable News Network, 15 July 2010. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.cnn.com/2010/SPORT/07/14/sport.iroquois.passport.controversy/index.html>.
This was one of several reports found in 2010 when the Iroquois Lacrosse team was not able to attend the world championship tournament because they were not allowed to travel on their own passports. Members of the team come from both north and south of the US-Canada border and based on tribal sovereignty and previous travel experiences on their Haudenosaunee Confederacy passports. I used this article as an example of ongoing reactions to the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act.
Harrington, John W. "Self-Determination for the American Red Man: Native Race Proposed for Full Citizenship in a Bill Now Before Congress." The New York Times 10 Aug. 1919: 4+. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
The post-war time frame is evident in this article which describes the self-determination movements of countries and peoples in Europe. Making Indians into US citizens is considered self-determination for them.
Harvier, Ernest. "Indians to Vote Next Election Day." The New York Times 7 Sept. 1924: S6. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
Three months after the Indian Citizenship Act passed, this article discusses the upcoming election and includes many racist assumptions about Indians which may reflect popular beliefs among white people. I used this article to learn more about the various perspectives about Indian citizenship and suffrage.
"House for Indian Citizenship and Distribution of Property." New York Times 15 Jan. 1920: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This brief article associated citizenship and land, and also gave me the date (January 14, 1920) of the debate in the House over the Snyder Bill (Indian Citizenship Act). This allowed me to find the debate in the Congressional Record.
"The Indian Problem: Sen. Dawes and Gen. Armstrong Give Their Views Regarding It." New York Times 23 July 1885: 5. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article is actually a reprint of a letter from Dawes that was read to the Indian Rights Association, and a report of the speech given by Armstrong. I used it to find evidence Dawes' motivations leading up to the 1887 Dawes Act.
"The Indian Severalty Bill." The New York Times 18 Dec. 1886: 4. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
As the Dawes Act was making its way through Congress, this article provides an urban, mainstream "white perspective" on its perceived benefits.
"Indians Ask Citizenship: Would Develop Self-Denial, Says Registar Parker, a Choctaw." New Yor 15 Feb. 1914: 8. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
I had read a reference to the Society of American Indians that said in 1913, its platform included no mention of citizenship, but that later the Society began to press for citizenship. This helped me gain more understanding of the arguments used by Indians to a non-Indian audience, supporting citizenship.
Jefferson, Thomas. "To the Senate and the House of Representatives." The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton University Press, 2012. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://jeffersonpapers.princeton.edu/selected-documents/senate-and-house-representatives>.
This letter by Thomas Jefferson to Congress shows early understanding of the government's desire to change Indian lifestyles in order to get more land.
McLellan, Howard. "Indian Magna Carta Writ in Wampum Belts: Six Nations Show Treaty Granting Them Independent Sovereignty as Long as Sun Shines." The New York Times 7 June 1925: SM16. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
In his autobiography, Chief Rickard mentioned the wampum belts of the treaties between the Iroquois and the US. This article describes in some depth the wampum belts used as the treaty basis for the Iroquois resistance to US citizenship. I used this for the information about which treaties the Iroquois refer to.
McNeely, John H. "American Indian Strides Forward." The New York Times 12 Sept. 1926: XX6. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
Largely quoted comments from the Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Charles H. Burke, this article summarizes his perspective that in the previous 50 years Indians had made such gains, that there would be no need for a Bureau of Indian Affairs in another 50 years. There are a number of statistics that point to the government's perspective on what improvement and civilization mean.
"New Business Before Congress: Proposed Raid on the Public Lands - Election of President by Direct Vote - Indian Citizenship - New Railroad and Telegraph Line - Library of Congress." New York Times 5 Feb. 1878: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
This brief legislative summary in the New York Times, gave me information about the bill that made certain tribes citizens. It also provided me with dates that helped me look up the status of that bill in the Congressional Record.
Office of Indian Affairs. Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924. Print.
The annual report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs provides a wealth of information about what was happening “on the ground” on Indian reservations and in Indian nations, from the perspective of the US government officials. This report describes the Indian Citizenship Act.
"Osage Indians Refused." New York Times 11 Jan. 1895: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article about Osage resistance to citizenship and land allotment gave me examples of how Osage (and presumably other Indians) resisted the Dawes Act.
Price, H. Letter to Mrs. Mary Burroughs. 11 Apr. 1883. MS. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
This letter from Commissioner Price of the Office of Indian Affairs denies Mrs. Burroughs her request for an allotment in the Winnebago reservation in Ellis, Nebraska because she has been allotted land in Minnesota. This letter, in connection with another letter from August 1883 and an application for citizenship from 1889, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
Price, H. Letter to Mrs. Mary Burroughs. 11 Aug. 1883. MS. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
Four months after the letter to Mrs. Burroughs in Nebraska, this letter is addressed to her at the Winnebago Agency in Minnesota. This letter is a response to her letter about someone taking the timber from her land and a request for her annuity payments. This letter, in connection with another letter from April 1883 and an application for citizenship from 1889, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
"Qualifications for Citizenship." Editorial. New York Times 13 Mar. 1880: 4. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This ironic opinion piece points out the differences between expectations of Indians and other citizens. Indians have to prove 2 years of moral living, while white men do not. This was printed at a time when immigration was increasing, but had not hit the large influx from Europe at the turn of the 20th century. This article helped me understand the arguments against the restrictions on citizenship at this time period.
Rickard, Clinton. Fighting Tuscarora: The Autobiography of Chief Clinton Rickard. Ed. Barbara Graymont. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1973. Print.
I read a reference to this autobiography by the founder of the Indian Defense League of America and adamant anti-US citizenship activist in "Challenging American Boundaries." This resource provided me with first person perspective of a Tuscarora leader fighting for Indian rights. The chapters on "Indian Leadership" and "Border Crossing" were particularly useful, though he did include an example of immigration problems at a school in Minnesota in 1970.
Roosevelt, Theodore. "First Annual Message." Speech. The American Presidency Project, 6 Dec. 1901. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29542#axzz2fetwVpNy>.
I used this website to find the full quotation about allotments referenced in another book, as well as using the image of Roosevelt.
United States. Cong. House. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates. 66 Cong., 2nd sess. H. Rept. P. 1541-1559. Vol. 59. N.p.: n.p., 1920. Part 1. http:archive.org. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
The transcript of the debate in the House allowed me to follow the arguments over the bill presented for Indian citizenship, and to find the names of key players in the debate. It led me to research the most vocal debaters and learn that two of the supporters were of Indian heritage.
United States. Cong. House. Minnesota Chippewa Commission. Chippewa Indians in Minnesota. By Henry M. Price, Martin Marty, and Joseph B. Whiting. 51st Cong., 1st sess. H. Rept. 247. N.p.: n.p., 1889. http://www.maquah.net/. Web. 14 Sept. 2013.
This commission report gave me a view into the situation of Ojibwe people in 1889, two years after the Dawes Act. The US government representatives seemed sympathetic to the bad living conditions in which the Ojibwe found themselves, and blamed the US government for causing some of them. It also showed the US government's desire to consolidate Ojibwe land in a few places, and with smaller amounts of land than they previously had. I used this source for a general sense of what things looked like "on the ground" in Minnesota after the Dawes Act, as well as using a quote from the report to represent the progressive, governmental perspective.
United States. Cong. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. Removal of Restrictions on Property of Indians Who Served in the Armed Forces. 79th Cong., 2nd sess. S. Rept. N.p.: Committee on Indian Affairs, 1946. Print.
While researching long-term effects of the Dawes Act and Indian Citizenship Act, I found this transcript of the hearing on S. 1093 and S. 1194. It provided the perspective of the Committee on Indian Affairs (and, presumably, the US government) about land allotment, almost 60 years after the Dawes Act. Clearly, the Dawes Act and Indian Citizenship Act did not effectively solve the “Indian problem.”
"Transcript of Dawes Act (1887)." Our Documents. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true>.
I used this transcript and the accompanying information to understand the details of the Dawes Act.
United States. Cong. Senate. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates. 70 Cong., 1st sess. S. Rept. P. 5711. Vol. 69. N.p.: n.p., 1928. Part 4. Http:archive.org. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
In the Congressional Record, I found documentation that the bill proposed by King had been enrolled. I had searched for discussion of the bill but didn't find it. This bill amended the 1924 Immigration Act to exempt Indians crossing from Canada.
United States. Minnesota Chippewa Commission. "Indian Copy" of Red Lake Transcripts. N.p.: n.p., 1889. Www.maquah.net. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.maquah.net/Historical/1889/RedLake-transcripts/RL-15.html>.
This transcript of an 1889 meeting between representatives of the US government and Red Lake General Council members covers discussion of the treaty for the Red Lake band to give the US government all the land "left over" after allotment. It also includes resistance from Council members to the idea of allotment, and to the idea of signing something they did not partake in creating. A government representative gave reassurance that the government only wants the Indians to take as much and whatever land as they need. It shows some of the misrepresentations by the US government. I also used the scanned image of page 15 of the transcript.
US Indian Service. Questions on Education, Health, Land, Citizenship, Economic Status, Etc. DC: Washington, 1952. Print.
This pro-Indian pamphlet with the purpose of educating non-Indians, gave a realistic overview of the situation for Indians in regard to discrimination, 18 years after the Indian Citizenship Act, which was described as a way to provide equal rights to Indians and make them equal to white citizens. It helped me see the lingering effects of the Act.
"Utes Want Freedom from Free Citizenship: Dissatisfied with the Opening of Uintah Reservation." New York Times 5 Nov. 1906: 5. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article in a major newspaper was written in a sympathetic voice toward the Utes who had left the reservation instead of taking allotments. This article showed another example of people who actively resisted US citizenship, and the extent to which the US government tried to force the citizenship on them.
Walker, Francis Amasa. "Indian Citizenship." The Indian Question. Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1874. 101-47. Print.
Written 13 years before the Dawes Act, by a former Commissioner of Indian Affairs, this text presents his reasoning for Indian citizenship. None of his reasons include the benefit for the Indians. This helped me develop my thesis that there ulterior motives for the US government, besides the progressive call for civilization, for the legislation and policies between 1887 and 1924.
What We Should Do for the Indian : Recommendations of the Conference of the Friends of the Indian. Held at Philadelphia, January 22-23, 1919. Philadelphia, PA: Friends of the Indian, 1919. Print.
The Friends of the Indian was an organization comprised of progressive non-Indians. This pamphlet provided me with a perspective of non-Indians urging US citizenship for Indians.
This article was written nearly 2 years after the Indian Citizenship Act. It summarizes some demographic information about Indians and some history of Indians in the US, focusing on efforts to civilize Indians. It highlights the dichotomy believed by many people in the US (Indians could either be uncivilized and dependent on the US government, or that Indians could be moral and useful members of society).
Application of Indians to Become Citizens of the United States. Oct. 1889. Application to US District Court. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
This appears to be a draft (in complete dates and no signatures of character witnesses, Mrs. Burroughs or members of her family) of an application for US citizenship directed to the judge of the US District Court. The application highlights her relinquishment of ties to her tribe, her "comfortable and civilized" way of life for the past 5 years, and her intelligence, all of which were requirements for citizenship for Indians. This application, in connection with a letter in dated April 1883 and another from August 1883, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
Bright, Alfred H. Indians as Citizens of the U.S. N.d. TS P2079. Gale Family Library, n.p.
Bright's personal papers include essays from the perspective of this progressive Minnesotan about suffrage. He supported women's suffrage and included documents about Indian suffrage, suggesting a connection between the two movements. He also included a typed copy of Article 7 of the Minnesota constitution. These papers provided me with a sense of the broader perspective of the progressive movement.
"Citizenship Carries Pauperism to Indians." New York Times 22 July 1906: 2. ProQuest. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
This article about Minnesota Indians spreads the stereotype of drunken Indians selling their allotments, saying they are citizens. This could build the argument against citizenship.
"Citizenship of Indians: Provisions of the Bill Reported by the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs." New York Times 15 Nov. 1877: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
Printed after the passage of the Dawes Act, this article describes amendments that clarified what property a new citizen could keep, also describes the process for an Indian to become a citizen. This overview was written for the general public, who might not know much about the Dawes Act and gave me an overview of its provisions.
Eastman, Charles Alexander. The Indian To-day: The past and Future of the First American. New York: AMS, 1975. Print.
Eastman, who had background in Minnesota and had been educated in white schools, as well as experiencing the effects expulsion of the Dakota from Minnesota originally published this book in 1915. This book gave me insight into the perspective of someone claiming Indian identity, who highlighted the differences the civilization process made in his family, seemingly to ingratiate himself to whites.
Free Border Crossing Flyer. Seneca Nation of Indians Master Calendar. Indian Defense League of America, 2012. Web. 28 Sept. 2013. <http://sni.org/media/34592/85th_annual_free_boarder_crossing.pdf>.
This flyer for the 85th annual Free Border Crossing commemorates the 1928 amendment of the Johnson-Reed Act which removed the restrictions on Native peoples entering the US, thus restoring the rights grated by the Jay Treaty of 1794. The annual crossing was begun by Tuscarora Chief Clinton Rickard.
Hamill, Kristen, Mary Snow, Elise Labott, and Meghan Rafferty. "Iroquois Lacrosse Team Still Caught in Bureaucratic Net." CNN. Cable News Network, 15 July 2010. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.cnn.com/2010/SPORT/07/14/sport.iroquois.passport.controversy/index.html>.
This was one of several reports found in 2010 when the Iroquois Lacrosse team was not able to attend the world championship tournament because they were not allowed to travel on their own passports. Members of the team come from both north and south of the US-Canada border and based on tribal sovereignty and previous travel experiences on their Haudenosaunee Confederacy passports. I used this article as an example of ongoing reactions to the 1924 Indian Citizenship Act.
Harrington, John W. "Self-Determination for the American Red Man: Native Race Proposed for Full Citizenship in a Bill Now Before Congress." The New York Times 10 Aug. 1919: 4+. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
The post-war time frame is evident in this article which describes the self-determination movements of countries and peoples in Europe. Making Indians into US citizens is considered self-determination for them.
Harvier, Ernest. "Indians to Vote Next Election Day." The New York Times 7 Sept. 1924: S6. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
Three months after the Indian Citizenship Act passed, this article discusses the upcoming election and includes many racist assumptions about Indians which may reflect popular beliefs among white people. I used this article to learn more about the various perspectives about Indian citizenship and suffrage.
"House for Indian Citizenship and Distribution of Property." New York Times 15 Jan. 1920: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This brief article associated citizenship and land, and also gave me the date (January 14, 1920) of the debate in the House over the Snyder Bill (Indian Citizenship Act). This allowed me to find the debate in the Congressional Record.
"The Indian Problem: Sen. Dawes and Gen. Armstrong Give Their Views Regarding It." New York Times 23 July 1885: 5. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article is actually a reprint of a letter from Dawes that was read to the Indian Rights Association, and a report of the speech given by Armstrong. I used it to find evidence Dawes' motivations leading up to the 1887 Dawes Act.
"The Indian Severalty Bill." The New York Times 18 Dec. 1886: 4. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
As the Dawes Act was making its way through Congress, this article provides an urban, mainstream "white perspective" on its perceived benefits.
"Indians Ask Citizenship: Would Develop Self-Denial, Says Registar Parker, a Choctaw." New Yor 15 Feb. 1914: 8. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
I had read a reference to the Society of American Indians that said in 1913, its platform included no mention of citizenship, but that later the Society began to press for citizenship. This helped me gain more understanding of the arguments used by Indians to a non-Indian audience, supporting citizenship.
Jefferson, Thomas. "To the Senate and the House of Representatives." The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton University Press, 2012. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://jeffersonpapers.princeton.edu/selected-documents/senate-and-house-representatives>.
This letter by Thomas Jefferson to Congress shows early understanding of the government's desire to change Indian lifestyles in order to get more land.
McLellan, Howard. "Indian Magna Carta Writ in Wampum Belts: Six Nations Show Treaty Granting Them Independent Sovereignty as Long as Sun Shines." The New York Times 7 June 1925: SM16. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
In his autobiography, Chief Rickard mentioned the wampum belts of the treaties between the Iroquois and the US. This article describes in some depth the wampum belts used as the treaty basis for the Iroquois resistance to US citizenship. I used this for the information about which treaties the Iroquois refer to.
McNeely, John H. "American Indian Strides Forward." The New York Times 12 Sept. 1926: XX6. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
Largely quoted comments from the Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Charles H. Burke, this article summarizes his perspective that in the previous 50 years Indians had made such gains, that there would be no need for a Bureau of Indian Affairs in another 50 years. There are a number of statistics that point to the government's perspective on what improvement and civilization mean.
"New Business Before Congress: Proposed Raid on the Public Lands - Election of President by Direct Vote - Indian Citizenship - New Railroad and Telegraph Line - Library of Congress." New York Times 5 Feb. 1878: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
This brief legislative summary in the New York Times, gave me information about the bill that made certain tribes citizens. It also provided me with dates that helped me look up the status of that bill in the Congressional Record.
Office of Indian Affairs. Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924. Print.
The annual report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs provides a wealth of information about what was happening “on the ground” on Indian reservations and in Indian nations, from the perspective of the US government officials. This report describes the Indian Citizenship Act.
"Osage Indians Refused." New York Times 11 Jan. 1895: 1. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article about Osage resistance to citizenship and land allotment gave me examples of how Osage (and presumably other Indians) resisted the Dawes Act.
Price, H. Letter to Mrs. Mary Burroughs. 11 Apr. 1883. MS. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
This letter from Commissioner Price of the Office of Indian Affairs denies Mrs. Burroughs her request for an allotment in the Winnebago reservation in Ellis, Nebraska because she has been allotted land in Minnesota. This letter, in connection with another letter from August 1883 and an application for citizenship from 1889, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
Price, H. Letter to Mrs. Mary Burroughs. 11 Aug. 1883. MS. Minnesota Historical Society Library, St. Paul, MN.
Four months after the letter to Mrs. Burroughs in Nebraska, this letter is addressed to her at the Winnebago Agency in Minnesota. This letter is a response to her letter about someone taking the timber from her land and a request for her annuity payments. This letter, in connection with another letter from April 1883 and an application for citizenship from 1889, tell part of Mrs. Burroughs' story in which citizenship and land ownership are intertwined.
"Qualifications for Citizenship." Editorial. New York Times 13 Mar. 1880: 4. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This ironic opinion piece points out the differences between expectations of Indians and other citizens. Indians have to prove 2 years of moral living, while white men do not. This was printed at a time when immigration was increasing, but had not hit the large influx from Europe at the turn of the 20th century. This article helped me understand the arguments against the restrictions on citizenship at this time period.
Rickard, Clinton. Fighting Tuscarora: The Autobiography of Chief Clinton Rickard. Ed. Barbara Graymont. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse UP, 1973. Print.
I read a reference to this autobiography by the founder of the Indian Defense League of America and adamant anti-US citizenship activist in "Challenging American Boundaries." This resource provided me with first person perspective of a Tuscarora leader fighting for Indian rights. The chapters on "Indian Leadership" and "Border Crossing" were particularly useful, though he did include an example of immigration problems at a school in Minnesota in 1970.
Roosevelt, Theodore. "First Annual Message." Speech. The American Presidency Project, 6 Dec. 1901. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29542#axzz2fetwVpNy>.
I used this website to find the full quotation about allotments referenced in another book, as well as using the image of Roosevelt.
United States. Cong. House. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates. 66 Cong., 2nd sess. H. Rept. P. 1541-1559. Vol. 59. N.p.: n.p., 1920. Part 1. http:archive.org. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
The transcript of the debate in the House allowed me to follow the arguments over the bill presented for Indian citizenship, and to find the names of key players in the debate. It led me to research the most vocal debaters and learn that two of the supporters were of Indian heritage.
United States. Cong. House. Minnesota Chippewa Commission. Chippewa Indians in Minnesota. By Henry M. Price, Martin Marty, and Joseph B. Whiting. 51st Cong., 1st sess. H. Rept. 247. N.p.: n.p., 1889. http://www.maquah.net/. Web. 14 Sept. 2013.
This commission report gave me a view into the situation of Ojibwe people in 1889, two years after the Dawes Act. The US government representatives seemed sympathetic to the bad living conditions in which the Ojibwe found themselves, and blamed the US government for causing some of them. It also showed the US government's desire to consolidate Ojibwe land in a few places, and with smaller amounts of land than they previously had. I used this source for a general sense of what things looked like "on the ground" in Minnesota after the Dawes Act, as well as using a quote from the report to represent the progressive, governmental perspective.
United States. Cong. Senate. Committee on Indian Affairs. Removal of Restrictions on Property of Indians Who Served in the Armed Forces. 79th Cong., 2nd sess. S. Rept. N.p.: Committee on Indian Affairs, 1946. Print.
While researching long-term effects of the Dawes Act and Indian Citizenship Act, I found this transcript of the hearing on S. 1093 and S. 1194. It provided the perspective of the Committee on Indian Affairs (and, presumably, the US government) about land allotment, almost 60 years after the Dawes Act. Clearly, the Dawes Act and Indian Citizenship Act did not effectively solve the “Indian problem.”
"Transcript of Dawes Act (1887)." Our Documents. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true>.
I used this transcript and the accompanying information to understand the details of the Dawes Act.
United States. Cong. Senate. Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates. 70 Cong., 1st sess. S. Rept. P. 5711. Vol. 69. N.p.: n.p., 1928. Part 4. Http:archive.org. Web. 18 Aug. 2013.
In the Congressional Record, I found documentation that the bill proposed by King had been enrolled. I had searched for discussion of the bill but didn't find it. This bill amended the 1924 Immigration Act to exempt Indians crossing from Canada.
United States. Minnesota Chippewa Commission. "Indian Copy" of Red Lake Transcripts. N.p.: n.p., 1889. Www.maquah.net. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.maquah.net/Historical/1889/RedLake-transcripts/RL-15.html>.
This transcript of an 1889 meeting between representatives of the US government and Red Lake General Council members covers discussion of the treaty for the Red Lake band to give the US government all the land "left over" after allotment. It also includes resistance from Council members to the idea of allotment, and to the idea of signing something they did not partake in creating. A government representative gave reassurance that the government only wants the Indians to take as much and whatever land as they need. It shows some of the misrepresentations by the US government. I also used the scanned image of page 15 of the transcript.
US Indian Service. Questions on Education, Health, Land, Citizenship, Economic Status, Etc. DC: Washington, 1952. Print.
This pro-Indian pamphlet with the purpose of educating non-Indians, gave a realistic overview of the situation for Indians in regard to discrimination, 18 years after the Indian Citizenship Act, which was described as a way to provide equal rights to Indians and make them equal to white citizens. It helped me see the lingering effects of the Act.
"Utes Want Freedom from Free Citizenship: Dissatisfied with the Opening of Uintah Reservation." New York Times 5 Nov. 1906: 5. ProQuest Historical Newspapers. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
This article in a major newspaper was written in a sympathetic voice toward the Utes who had left the reservation instead of taking allotments. This article showed another example of people who actively resisted US citizenship, and the extent to which the US government tried to force the citizenship on them.
Walker, Francis Amasa. "Indian Citizenship." The Indian Question. Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1874. 101-47. Print.
Written 13 years before the Dawes Act, by a former Commissioner of Indian Affairs, this text presents his reasoning for Indian citizenship. None of his reasons include the benefit for the Indians. This helped me develop my thesis that there ulterior motives for the US government, besides the progressive call for civilization, for the legislation and policies between 1887 and 1924.
What We Should Do for the Indian : Recommendations of the Conference of the Friends of the Indian. Held at Philadelphia, January 22-23, 1919. Philadelphia, PA: Friends of the Indian, 1919. Print.
The Friends of the Indian was an organization comprised of progressive non-Indians. This pamphlet provided me with a perspective of non-Indians urging US citizenship for Indians.