Secondary Sources
Barsh, Russel L. "An American Heart of Darkness: The 1913 Expedition for American Indian Citizenship." Great Plains Quarterly 13.2 (1993): 91-115. ProQuest. Web. 7 Aug. 2013.
Many of my accounts of the white perspectives on Indian citizenship came from the Office of Indian Affairs and the New York Times. This article about the 1913 Expedition gave me insight of an Indian "expert" funded privately by a wealthy white person. This helped to enhance my understanding of the "civilization" perspective of Indian citizenship that was fairly common in the US at the time.
Bruyneel, Kevin. "Challenging American Boundaries: Indigenous People and the "Gift" of U.S. Citizenship." Studies in American Political Development 18 (2004): 30-43. Print.
This article clearly lays out two native perspectives on US citizenship. For both the pro-citizenship and anti-citizenship perspectives, the article provided me with names of prominent Indians and their reasoning. This led me to other primary sources and some of the quotations I included in my website.
Cadwalader, Sandra L., and Vine Deloria, Jr., eds. The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy since the 1880s. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1984. Print.
This history of Indian policies from an Indian perspective laid out key acts and laws, which then helped further my research and also decide what to include on my legal timeline.
"Carter, Charles David - Biographical Information." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. US House of Representatives, n.d. Web. 02 Sept. 2013. <http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=C000196>.
After reading Rep. Carter's comments in the Congressional Record, I wanted to know more about him, so I looked him up in Congress's biographical directory. I found that Carter was part Choctaw and part Chickasaw. I also used the photo from this entry.
Champagne, Duane. Chronology of Native North American History: From Pre-Columbian times to the Present. Detroit: Gale Research, 1994. Print.
This account of a broad sweep of history provided me with some preliminary direction for my research into the time period of 1887-1924. It listed some key cases and dates which provided my next steps in the early stages of my research.
"The Dawes Act of 1887." Nebraskastudies.org. NET, Nebraska Department of Education, Nebraska State Historical Society, n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2013.
Nebraska is a state impacted heavily by the Dawes Act. This website explained the reasoning and goals behind the Dawes Act, which helped me when formulating my thesis.
"The Dawes Act of February 8, 1887." CopperCountry.com. CopperCountry.com, Inc., 2013. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. <http://www.coppercountry.com/article_101.php>.
This website included text from the Dawes Act as well as commentary from the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (Ojibwa, in Michigan) perspective. This helped me with understanding the Dawes Act and in writing my thesis statement.
Deloria, Vine, Jr. The Indian Affair. New York: Friendship, 1974. Print.
Vine Deloria, Jr. was a prominent Dakota historian and activist. This text gave me an overview of the legal history, from the Indian perspective.
Dupuis, Wayne. "Native American Citizenship/suffrage." Message to the author. 7 Aug. 2013. E-mail.
Dupuis is a professor of Indian Studies at Fond du Lac Tribal Community College. He conveyed his family history of exploitation by the US government and provided a link to transcripts from the Ojibwe community around 1887.
Dupuis, Wayne. N.d. Collective history and message.
This undated, unpublished document was compiled by Mr. Dupuis based on tribal history of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe (established in 1934), largely based on a message from the elders. He sent it to me after some email exchanges about the history of citizenship for Minnesota Indians. It explains the imposition of policy from the US government and membership criteria, as well as the concerns of the elders regarding this. This helped me see some of the continuing effects of citizenship policies.
Ebbott, Elizabeth, and Judith Rosenblatt. Indians in Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1985. Print.
This book named the Minnesota statute that encouraged a measure of civilization before granting Indians US citizenship.
"Glossary." Indian Land Tenure Foundation. N.p., 2012. Web. 9 Aug. 2013. <http://www.iltf.org/glossary>.
I had been confused by the concepts of fee simple, patent in fee, and land alienation, which are key to understanding the Dawes Act and its provisions for allocation and citizenship. This glossary gave clear explanation of these terms.
Hart, Irving H. "The Story of Beengwa, Daughter of a Chippewa Warrior." Minnesota History Dec. 1928: 319-30. Print.
This oral history with a woman who died in 1928 recalls the conflicts between white settlers and Indians as well as land being used to "hush" Indians from their complaints about the US government.
"Hastings, William Wirt - Biographical Information." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. US House of Representatives, n.d. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000333>.
After reading the Congressional records, I saw Representative Hastings mentioned in an article as one of two representatives having "a strain of Indian blood." I saw in this biography that he was Cherokee.
"Gathering and Interactions of Peoples, Cultures, and Ideas." A Brief Timeline of U.S. Policy on Immigration and Naturalization. Flow of History, 2013. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <http://www.flowofhistory.org/themes/movement_settlement/uspolicytimeline.php>.
This website is a collaboration of educators and historians in Vermont and the Connecticut River Valley. I used the immigration timeline for more information about European immigration during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
"Immigration in the U.S. by Decade." National Park Service, n.d. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nps.gov/elis/historyculture/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=392020>.
The National Park Service's Ellis Island website provided data on immigration and total population in the early 20th century, which I used for historical context and to create my graph of immigrants compared to total population.
Kaplan, Thomas. "Iroquois Defeated by Passport Dispute." New York Times. D1, 16 July 2010. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/17/sports/17lacrosse.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0>.
This article describes the ongoing dispute between the US government and the Haudenosaunee (Iroqouis) over passport and sovereignty issues. Due to new security concerns, the US government in 2010 would not recognize the Haudenosaunee passport that had been in use since 1977. I used information from the article as well as an image of passport.
Kappler, Charles J., ed. Treaty with the Kickapoo, 1862. N.p.: United States Government, 1862. INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES. Vol. 2, Treaties. Oklahoma State University Library. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0835.htm>.
I found a reference to this treaty in the “Silence a Drum” chapter, and this full-text version of the treaty let me see exactly all the limitations placed on the Kickapoo in the process of becoming citizens.
Kappler, Charles J., ed. Treaty with the Ottawa and Chippewa, 1855. N.p.: United States Government, 1855. INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES. Vol. 2, Treaties. Oklahoma State University Library. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol2/treaties/ott0725.htm>.
This is an electronic version of the text of the Treaty between the United States and the Ottawa and Chippewa of 1855 that allowed me to see the wording that dissolved the tribal status after granting land ownership.
"Lakota And Cheyenne Indian Tribes Declare Independence From US." Earth Island Journal 6.4 (1991): 32. Academic Search Premier. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
In 1991, Lakota, Arapaho and Cheyenne were declaring independence and rejecting the loss of land imposed upon them in several treaties from the 1800s. This article shows continued resistance from Indians.
Lee, R. Alton. "Indian Citizenship and the Fourteenth Amendment." South Dakota History 4.2 (1974): 198-221. Print.
This article explained some of the legal intricacies of Indian citizenship, especially in comparison to African American citizenship as granted by the 14th amendment. This helped me draw explicit comparisons to the 14th amendment in establishing the historical context.
Legislative Reference Bureau. Rhode Island State Library. General Constitutional and Statutory Provisions Relative to Suffrage. Comp. Lowell Kendrick and Harold P. Salisbury. Vol. 6. Providence: F.L. Freeman, 1912. Bulletin. Google Books. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
Comparison of Bright's hand-typed version of the Minnesota Constitution to the original, brought out some changes that had been made. This highlighted and confirmed some of the points of discussion about the Minnesota constitution that I had seen referenced in other sources. This book had the same version of the sections of Article 7 that Bright had in his files, with notes about when changes were made. This book also had parts from the Michigan Constitution which had been referenced by Rosen. Therefore, I believe Bright's version of the constitution was typed after 1898 and before 1912.
Majewicz, Cary. Indian Rights Association Records Finding Aid. Apr. 2009. Description of the Indian Rights Association. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
I had an article that mentioned the Indian Rights Association to which Senator Dawes had written a letter. This abstract gave me some historical background to who the Indian Rights Association was.
Martin, Jill E. "Neither Fish, Flesh, Fowl, nor Good Red Herring: The Citizenship Staus of American Indians 1830-1924." American Indians and U.S. Politics: A Companion Reader. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002. 51-72. Print.
This section lays out the legal status of Native Americans before 1924. It includes quotes from the Congressional record that demonstrate the various reasons to exclude Indians from citizenship.
McCool, Daniel, Susan M. Olson, and Jennifer L. Robinson. "From Vanishing Point to Voter: The Enfranchisement of American Indians." Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights Act, and the Right to Vote. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. 1-20. Print.
This chapter provided me with another perspective and more information on the process of suffrage for Indians, which is closely tied to the arguments and legal procedures of making Indians US citizens.
"Native American Citizenship 1924." NebraskaStudies.Org, n.d. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/frameset.html>.
This website provided leads for further research into court cases and also provided some historical context and connections in the history of Native American citizenship.
Porter, Joy. "Native Americans: The Assertion of Sovereignty and the Negotiation of Citizenship and Identities." Federalism, Citizenship, and Collective Identities in U.S. History. By Cornelis A. Van. Minnen and Sylvia L. Hilton. Amsterdam: VU UP, 2000. 178-90. Print.
This chapter gave me some additional examples of Native resistance and insistence on sovereignty and also some more background on the complicated history of US citizenship.
Rosen, Deborah A. American Indians and State Law: Sovereignty, Race, and Citizenship, 1790-1880. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2007. Print.
While I was trying to focus my research on Minnesota examples and experiences, this provided me with a broader scope, and also included key court cases related to Minnesota and US courts, discussion of race in creating MN constitution and whether Indians and Blacks should be treated the same legally. This led me to some details I included on my legal timeline, and helped me develop the historical context.
"Sharing Native American Heritage." In the Spotlight. National Technical Institute for the Deaf, 3 Oct. 2012. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://www.ntid.rit.edu/spotlight/sharing-native-american-heritage>.
In searching for images of Chief Clinton Rickard online, I found several references to his Deaf daughter Onalee Cooper, including this short biography. This adds more depth to the cultural richness or complications of Chief Rickard, who had attended "white" schools, used white style clothing except for special occasions, farmed and was Christian. However, he was also chief and caretaker of the wampum, and worked to preserve Tuscarora language and cultural practices. His Deaf daughter spent most of her time at the school for the Deaf and when she was with her family, did not learn about her Tuscarora culture because it is passed on orally. Only later, upon reading her father's autobiography did she find out that he was the chief. The autobiography only mentions her once, in passing, as being married in Rochester.
Testi, Arnaldo. "The U.S. Electorate, 1830s-1920s." How Did They Become Voters? The History of Franchise in Modern European Representation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, n.d. 387-413. Print.
I used this overview of general US electorate situation and policies over time to give context and larger scope for my research into citizenship laws about Indians.
"Transcript of Dawes Act (1887)." Our Documents. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true>.
I used this transcript and the accompanying information to understand the details of the Dawes Act.
United States. Census Bureau. Population 1790-1990. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 26 Aug. 1993. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/table-4.pdf>.
This Census Bureau table provided me with statistics for total US population in the 19th and 20th centuries for historical context. I used the information in my graph of population and immigration.
"United States Naturalization and Citizenship." FamilySearch Research Wiki. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 2013. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <https://familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/United_States_Naturalization_and_Citizenship>.
This website gives a brief overview of immigration and naturalization policies that helped me compare the process for European immigrants and Indians to become citizens.
"US Immigration Levels, by Decade." NPG Facts and Figures. Negative Population Growth, n.d. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.npg.org/facts/us_imm_decade.htm>.
The Negative Population Growth website provided immigration statistics for the 19th and 20th century which I used to compare to and add to the National Park Service statistics for historical context. I used these data in the graph of population and immigration.
Wilkins, David E. "Indian Political Participation: Patriotism, Suffrage, and Partisanship." American Indian Politics and the American Political System. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. 188-97. Print.
This chapter provided a quote from Indian Affairs Commissioner Thomas J. Morgan in 1891 about what the government was doing to civilize Indians. It also gave me general knowledge of current voting rates (and therefore some sense of citizenship) between tribal and federal elections. I also used a quote from Wilkins to summarize the difference between Indians and other groups in their relation to rights and responsibilities in regard to the US polity.
Many of my accounts of the white perspectives on Indian citizenship came from the Office of Indian Affairs and the New York Times. This article about the 1913 Expedition gave me insight of an Indian "expert" funded privately by a wealthy white person. This helped to enhance my understanding of the "civilization" perspective of Indian citizenship that was fairly common in the US at the time.
Bruyneel, Kevin. "Challenging American Boundaries: Indigenous People and the "Gift" of U.S. Citizenship." Studies in American Political Development 18 (2004): 30-43. Print.
This article clearly lays out two native perspectives on US citizenship. For both the pro-citizenship and anti-citizenship perspectives, the article provided me with names of prominent Indians and their reasoning. This led me to other primary sources and some of the quotations I included in my website.
Cadwalader, Sandra L., and Vine Deloria, Jr., eds. The Aggressions of Civilization: Federal Indian Policy since the 1880s. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1984. Print.
This history of Indian policies from an Indian perspective laid out key acts and laws, which then helped further my research and also decide what to include on my legal timeline.
"Carter, Charles David - Biographical Information." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. US House of Representatives, n.d. Web. 02 Sept. 2013. <http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=C000196>.
After reading Rep. Carter's comments in the Congressional Record, I wanted to know more about him, so I looked him up in Congress's biographical directory. I found that Carter was part Choctaw and part Chickasaw. I also used the photo from this entry.
Champagne, Duane. Chronology of Native North American History: From Pre-Columbian times to the Present. Detroit: Gale Research, 1994. Print.
This account of a broad sweep of history provided me with some preliminary direction for my research into the time period of 1887-1924. It listed some key cases and dates which provided my next steps in the early stages of my research.
"The Dawes Act of 1887." Nebraskastudies.org. NET, Nebraska Department of Education, Nebraska State Historical Society, n.d. Web. 08 Aug. 2013.
Nebraska is a state impacted heavily by the Dawes Act. This website explained the reasoning and goals behind the Dawes Act, which helped me when formulating my thesis.
"The Dawes Act of February 8, 1887." CopperCountry.com. CopperCountry.com, Inc., 2013. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. <http://www.coppercountry.com/article_101.php>.
This website included text from the Dawes Act as well as commentary from the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (Ojibwa, in Michigan) perspective. This helped me with understanding the Dawes Act and in writing my thesis statement.
Deloria, Vine, Jr. The Indian Affair. New York: Friendship, 1974. Print.
Vine Deloria, Jr. was a prominent Dakota historian and activist. This text gave me an overview of the legal history, from the Indian perspective.
Dupuis, Wayne. "Native American Citizenship/suffrage." Message to the author. 7 Aug. 2013. E-mail.
Dupuis is a professor of Indian Studies at Fond du Lac Tribal Community College. He conveyed his family history of exploitation by the US government and provided a link to transcripts from the Ojibwe community around 1887.
Dupuis, Wayne. N.d. Collective history and message.
This undated, unpublished document was compiled by Mr. Dupuis based on tribal history of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe (established in 1934), largely based on a message from the elders. He sent it to me after some email exchanges about the history of citizenship for Minnesota Indians. It explains the imposition of policy from the US government and membership criteria, as well as the concerns of the elders regarding this. This helped me see some of the continuing effects of citizenship policies.
Ebbott, Elizabeth, and Judith Rosenblatt. Indians in Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1985. Print.
This book named the Minnesota statute that encouraged a measure of civilization before granting Indians US citizenship.
"Glossary." Indian Land Tenure Foundation. N.p., 2012. Web. 9 Aug. 2013. <http://www.iltf.org/glossary>.
I had been confused by the concepts of fee simple, patent in fee, and land alienation, which are key to understanding the Dawes Act and its provisions for allocation and citizenship. This glossary gave clear explanation of these terms.
Hart, Irving H. "The Story of Beengwa, Daughter of a Chippewa Warrior." Minnesota History Dec. 1928: 319-30. Print.
This oral history with a woman who died in 1928 recalls the conflicts between white settlers and Indians as well as land being used to "hush" Indians from their complaints about the US government.
"Hastings, William Wirt - Biographical Information." Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. US House of Representatives, n.d. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000333>.
After reading the Congressional records, I saw Representative Hastings mentioned in an article as one of two representatives having "a strain of Indian blood." I saw in this biography that he was Cherokee.
"Gathering and Interactions of Peoples, Cultures, and Ideas." A Brief Timeline of U.S. Policy on Immigration and Naturalization. Flow of History, 2013. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <http://www.flowofhistory.org/themes/movement_settlement/uspolicytimeline.php>.
This website is a collaboration of educators and historians in Vermont and the Connecticut River Valley. I used the immigration timeline for more information about European immigration during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
"Immigration in the U.S. by Decade." National Park Service, n.d. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nps.gov/elis/historyculture/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=392020>.
The National Park Service's Ellis Island website provided data on immigration and total population in the early 20th century, which I used for historical context and to create my graph of immigrants compared to total population.
Kaplan, Thomas. "Iroquois Defeated by Passport Dispute." New York Times. D1, 16 July 2010. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/17/sports/17lacrosse.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0>.
This article describes the ongoing dispute between the US government and the Haudenosaunee (Iroqouis) over passport and sovereignty issues. Due to new security concerns, the US government in 2010 would not recognize the Haudenosaunee passport that had been in use since 1977. I used information from the article as well as an image of passport.
Kappler, Charles J., ed. Treaty with the Kickapoo, 1862. N.p.: United States Government, 1862. INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES. Vol. 2, Treaties. Oklahoma State University Library. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/kic0835.htm>.
I found a reference to this treaty in the “Silence a Drum” chapter, and this full-text version of the treaty let me see exactly all the limitations placed on the Kickapoo in the process of becoming citizens.
Kappler, Charles J., ed. Treaty with the Ottawa and Chippewa, 1855. N.p.: United States Government, 1855. INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES. Vol. 2, Treaties. Oklahoma State University Library. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol2/treaties/ott0725.htm>.
This is an electronic version of the text of the Treaty between the United States and the Ottawa and Chippewa of 1855 that allowed me to see the wording that dissolved the tribal status after granting land ownership.
"Lakota And Cheyenne Indian Tribes Declare Independence From US." Earth Island Journal 6.4 (1991): 32. Academic Search Premier. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
In 1991, Lakota, Arapaho and Cheyenne were declaring independence and rejecting the loss of land imposed upon them in several treaties from the 1800s. This article shows continued resistance from Indians.
Lee, R. Alton. "Indian Citizenship and the Fourteenth Amendment." South Dakota History 4.2 (1974): 198-221. Print.
This article explained some of the legal intricacies of Indian citizenship, especially in comparison to African American citizenship as granted by the 14th amendment. This helped me draw explicit comparisons to the 14th amendment in establishing the historical context.
Legislative Reference Bureau. Rhode Island State Library. General Constitutional and Statutory Provisions Relative to Suffrage. Comp. Lowell Kendrick and Harold P. Salisbury. Vol. 6. Providence: F.L. Freeman, 1912. Bulletin. Google Books. Web. 2 Sept. 2013.
Comparison of Bright's hand-typed version of the Minnesota Constitution to the original, brought out some changes that had been made. This highlighted and confirmed some of the points of discussion about the Minnesota constitution that I had seen referenced in other sources. This book had the same version of the sections of Article 7 that Bright had in his files, with notes about when changes were made. This book also had parts from the Michigan Constitution which had been referenced by Rosen. Therefore, I believe Bright's version of the constitution was typed after 1898 and before 1912.
Majewicz, Cary. Indian Rights Association Records Finding Aid. Apr. 2009. Description of the Indian Rights Association. Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
I had an article that mentioned the Indian Rights Association to which Senator Dawes had written a letter. This abstract gave me some historical background to who the Indian Rights Association was.
Martin, Jill E. "Neither Fish, Flesh, Fowl, nor Good Red Herring: The Citizenship Staus of American Indians 1830-1924." American Indians and U.S. Politics: A Companion Reader. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002. 51-72. Print.
This section lays out the legal status of Native Americans before 1924. It includes quotes from the Congressional record that demonstrate the various reasons to exclude Indians from citizenship.
McCool, Daniel, Susan M. Olson, and Jennifer L. Robinson. "From Vanishing Point to Voter: The Enfranchisement of American Indians." Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights Act, and the Right to Vote. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. 1-20. Print.
This chapter provided me with another perspective and more information on the process of suffrage for Indians, which is closely tied to the arguments and legal procedures of making Indians US citizens.
"Native American Citizenship 1924." NebraskaStudies.Org, n.d. Web. 08 Sept. 2013. <http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/frameset.html>.
This website provided leads for further research into court cases and also provided some historical context and connections in the history of Native American citizenship.
Porter, Joy. "Native Americans: The Assertion of Sovereignty and the Negotiation of Citizenship and Identities." Federalism, Citizenship, and Collective Identities in U.S. History. By Cornelis A. Van. Minnen and Sylvia L. Hilton. Amsterdam: VU UP, 2000. 178-90. Print.
This chapter gave me some additional examples of Native resistance and insistence on sovereignty and also some more background on the complicated history of US citizenship.
Rosen, Deborah A. American Indians and State Law: Sovereignty, Race, and Citizenship, 1790-1880. Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2007. Print.
While I was trying to focus my research on Minnesota examples and experiences, this provided me with a broader scope, and also included key court cases related to Minnesota and US courts, discussion of race in creating MN constitution and whether Indians and Blacks should be treated the same legally. This led me to some details I included on my legal timeline, and helped me develop the historical context.
"Sharing Native American Heritage." In the Spotlight. National Technical Institute for the Deaf, 3 Oct. 2012. Web. 24 Aug. 2013. <http://www.ntid.rit.edu/spotlight/sharing-native-american-heritage>.
In searching for images of Chief Clinton Rickard online, I found several references to his Deaf daughter Onalee Cooper, including this short biography. This adds more depth to the cultural richness or complications of Chief Rickard, who had attended "white" schools, used white style clothing except for special occasions, farmed and was Christian. However, he was also chief and caretaker of the wampum, and worked to preserve Tuscarora language and cultural practices. His Deaf daughter spent most of her time at the school for the Deaf and when she was with her family, did not learn about her Tuscarora culture because it is passed on orally. Only later, upon reading her father's autobiography did she find out that he was the chief. The autobiography only mentions her once, in passing, as being married in Rochester.
Testi, Arnaldo. "The U.S. Electorate, 1830s-1920s." How Did They Become Voters? The History of Franchise in Modern European Representation. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, n.d. 387-413. Print.
I used this overview of general US electorate situation and policies over time to give context and larger scope for my research into citizenship laws about Indians.
"Transcript of Dawes Act (1887)." Our Documents. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Sept. 2013. <http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true>.
I used this transcript and the accompanying information to understand the details of the Dawes Act.
United States. Census Bureau. Population 1790-1990. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 26 Aug. 1993. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/table-4.pdf>.
This Census Bureau table provided me with statistics for total US population in the 19th and 20th centuries for historical context. I used the information in my graph of population and immigration.
"United States Naturalization and Citizenship." FamilySearch Research Wiki. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 2013. Web. 15 Sept. 2013. <https://familysearch.org/learn/wiki/en/United_States_Naturalization_and_Citizenship>.
This website gives a brief overview of immigration and naturalization policies that helped me compare the process for European immigrants and Indians to become citizens.
"US Immigration Levels, by Decade." NPG Facts and Figures. Negative Population Growth, n.d. Web. 14 Sept. 2013. <http://www.npg.org/facts/us_imm_decade.htm>.
The Negative Population Growth website provided immigration statistics for the 19th and 20th century which I used to compare to and add to the National Park Service statistics for historical context. I used these data in the graph of population and immigration.
Wilkins, David E. "Indian Political Participation: Patriotism, Suffrage, and Partisanship." American Indian Politics and the American Political System. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. 188-97. Print.
This chapter provided a quote from Indian Affairs Commissioner Thomas J. Morgan in 1891 about what the government was doing to civilize Indians. It also gave me general knowledge of current voting rates (and therefore some sense of citizenship) between tribal and federal elections. I also used a quote from Wilkins to summarize the difference between Indians and other groups in their relation to rights and responsibilities in regard to the US polity.